The Ministry of Defence (MOD) is the primary governmental organization responsible for maintaining India’s territorial integrity. MOD coordinates, implements, and oversees the execution of the government of India’s (GOI) defense policy through the Indian Armed Forces and supporting elements of MOD.
Possessing land borders with seven countries, islands stretching from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the east to the Lakshadweep and Minicoy Islands to the west, and sea borders with the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean, India’s defense requirements are formidable. Tense relationships with fellow nuclear powers China and Pakistan, participation in the rehabilitation of Afghanistan, an active insurgency in the northeast, a proxy war in Kashmir, and helping maintain freedom of navigation in one of the world’s most heavily traveled sea lanes are but a few of the many challenges that face the government, MOD, and Indian Armed Forces.
The Ministry of Defence traces its roots to the Military Department of the East India Company Government of 1776. Over the course of the 18th century, the Military Department grew to manage the administrative and financial support functions of the Indian Army. In the early 20th century, a series of reorganizations resulted in the consolidation of all support functions in the Army Department. In 1938, the Army Department was renamed the Defence Department.
Upon independence from British rule and establishment of the Republic of India in 1950, the Defence Department was transformed into the Ministry of Defence and placed under a Cabinet Minister. Each of the armed services was placed under their own chiefs of staff but remained under the overall control of MOD.
Reorganizations and growth occurred over the next 60 years as the roles and responsibilities of MOD grew. Continuing conflicts with Pakistan and China as well as the challenges brought by independence forced the evolution of the ministry as it learned hard lessons and addressed critical issues. The Defence Research and Development Organisation was established in 1980 to centralize research and development efforts in support of national defense. Organizations to control the integration of imports and production of defense equipment underwent various permutations and now fall under the Department of Defence Production, established in 2004. Reforms also brought about the creation of the Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare in 2004 to centralize governmental efforts to address the wellbeing of Indian veterans.
The Ministry of Defence (MOD) is responsible for administrative and operational control of the armed services of India: the Army, Navy, Air Force and the Coast Guard. The president of India is the supreme commander of the armed forces, but parliamentary bodies play the greatest role in determining India’s defense policies. The Prime Minister’s Union Cabinet develops India’s national security policy and the Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs makes the most important defense policy decisions. MOD provides the framework, resources, direction and coordination for implementation of the government’s defense policy. MOD enacts these policies through the service chiefs and oversees their implementation and execution.
The Defence Minister, the Raksha Mantri, a member of the Union Cabinet, heads MOD. To fulfill its mission, MOD is organized into a finance division and four departments: the Department of Defence, Department of Defence Production, Defence Research and Development Organisation, and Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare. Numerous Inter-Service Organisations (ISOs) dedicated to training, logistics and administrative functions also fall under MOD.
Attached or Autonomous Bodies
The Financial Advisor (Defence Services) heads the Finance Division. It manages expenditures of the defense budget and conducts internal auditing and accounting of these expenditures. The Finance Division ensures the correct execution of approved programs within resource allocations and serves an advisory role on all financial matters to the Raksha Mantri.
The Defence Secretary heads DOD and is responsible for coordination of the four MOD departments and all defense related activities. DOD is also responsible for the defense budget and foreign military cooperation. The headquarters and Integrated Defense Staff falls within DOD.
Integrated Defence Staff (IDS):
IDS was established in October of 2001 as a result of the 2000 GOM review of the national security system. The purpose of IDS is to promote a joint approach to defense issues. The chairman, Chiefs of Staff Committee, heads IDS. The Chiefs of Staff Committee is comprised of the co-equal heads of the Army, Navy and Air Force.
Defence Intelligence Agency (DIA):
DIA was created in March of 2002 as a result of reform measures identified after the Kargil War by a special task force headed by Shri G. C. Saxena. DIA functions under the Chief of the Integrated Defence Staff. DIA consolidates intelligence from the three other armed forces intelligence bodies to improve intelligence sharing and support joint and national decision making. DIA is responsible for providing integrated intelligence to MOD.
India’s armed forces fall under the purview of MOD’s Department of Defense. The armed forces provide for the national defense against external and internal, land, air and sea-based threats. MOD also oversees a number of paramilitary special purpose forces, in conjunction with the Ministry of the Interior.
The Indian Army evolved from the British Indian Army and was formed after establishment of the Republic in 1950. The mission of the Indian Army is to preserve national interests, safeguard sovereignty, territorial integrity, and unity of India against external threats and to assist government agencies with internal threats and other contingencies. The Indian Army currently has 1,100,000 active personnel and 960,000 in reserve units, making it the second largest standing army in the world after the United States.
The Indian Navy was formed from the Royal Indian Navy after establishment of the Republic in 1950. The Navy’s mission is to defeat threats against the territory, people, or maritime interests of India, project influence in India’s maritime area of interest, and in conjunction with the Indian Coast Guard, provide stability, security, and assistance in India’s maritime zones. The Indian Navy has 56,000 active personnel.
The Indian Air Force was established in October of 1932. Its mission is to secure Indian airspace and conduct aerial warfare during conflicts.
The Indian Coast Guard was originally under the auspices of the Indian Navy. It was established as a separate service in August of 1978. The Coast Guard falls under the administrative control of MOD and under the operational control of the Navy during war. Its primary mission is to enforce law in the Indian maritime zones, provide protection and assistance to seafarers, support the Indian Navy as required, and provide assistance with anti-smuggling operations. The Indian Coast Guard contains 5,400 personnel.
Department of Defence Production (DDP):
DDP originated in 1962 and is headed by the Secretary of Defence Production. It merged with the Department of Defence Supplies in 1984. DDP is responsible for defense production, incorporation of imports into defense production, supplies and materiel, and the planning and control of departmental production units of the Ordnance Factory Board and Defence Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs). Although force modernization and domestic production are stated goals of the republic, the majority of defense material remains imported.
Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO):
DRDO was established in 1980 and traces its roots back to the 1958 merger of the Indian Army’s Technical Development Establishments and the Defence Science Organisation’s Directorate of Technical Development and Production. The head of DRDO is the Secretary of Defence Research and Development and serves as the Raksha Mantri’s chief scientific advisor. DRDO advises MOD and the government on the creation of research, design and development plans to meet defense requirements and on the scientific aspects of military equipment and logistics. In fulfillment of its mission, DRDO works closely with a wide range of actors: 15 science and technology agencies, 40 academic institutions, 50 government-owned corporations, and more than 200 businesses. DRDO faces intense criticism for failing to provide the most basic equipment to the Indian Armed Forces or to maintain projects on schedule.
Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare (DEW)
DEW was established in 2004 and headed by the secretary (ESW). The department deals with the wellbeing, resettlement, and pensionary issues of ex-servicemen. It assists in the transition, retraining and follow-on employment, and entrepreneurial efforts of former service members.
Military Engineer Services (MES):
MES provides construction and engineering services to the armed services and departments of MOD. It provides infrastructure services such as water supply and sewage treatment plants as well as construction of dockyards and wharves, airfields, and roads. Civilians and military personnel with a wide range of capabilities- architects, civil, electrical and mechanical engineers, surveyors and contract specialists man MES.
Armed Forces Medical Services (AFMS):
AFMS consists of the Army Medical Corps, Army Dental Corps, and Military Nursing Services. It oversees medical research and provides comprehensive health care to active duty military personnel and their dependents as well as certain medical services to the ex-service members and their families. AFMS operates a wide network of health care facilities throughout the country to include 127 conventional hospitals as well as field hospitals consisting of regimental aid posts and field ambulances.
Directorate General of Defence Estates (DGDE):
DGDE purchases, sells, leases and manages MOD properties. Their holdings include over 1,700,000 acres and 62 cantonments.
Office of the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO):
CAO is responsible for providing civilian manpower and infrastructural support to the armed forces service headquarters and the headquarters offices of the ISOs within the MOD.
Directorate of Public Relations
Directorate of Public Relations provides media support and services to MOD, the armed services, and the ISOs. It facilitates MOD relations with the media and provides radio broadcast and journal publications to relay defense information to the public and armed forces personnel.
Army Purchase Organisation (APO)
APO is responsible for the procurement and provision of dry ration items to the armed forces.
Services Sports Control Board (SSCB):
SSCB coordinates and conducts sports activities within and between the Indian armed services to include service, national, and international competitions.
Armed Forces Films & Photo Division (AFFPD):
AFFPD is responsible for the production, procurement and distribution of training films, production of photographs, and other media in support of MOD. It also maintains a library of films and photographs of the Indian armed forces within the Central Defence Film Library.
School of Foreign Languages (SFL):
SFL provides training in 16 foreign languages to personnel of the Indian armed forces as well as other governmental organizations. It oversees all language training at other defense institutions. Levels of language training available vary from familiarization through mastery.
The History Division maintains the official histories of the Indian Armed Forces. It also serves as the record and reference office for MOD and the armed services’ headquarters.
National Defence College (NDC):
NDC was established in 1960 to educated senior military officers and civilian leaders on national security and strategic studies. Military officers in the rank of brigadier and civil service officers in the rank of director or deputy secretary attend for 47 weeks and gain a broad understanding of the political, economic, military, scientific and organizational matters necessary to conduct national security planning.
College of Defence Management (CDM):
CDM was established in 1970 to provide training in the management concepts and practices applicable to defense operations and training, intelligence, and logistics.
Defence Services Staff College (DSSC):
Located in Tamil Nadu, DSSC was established in 1905 to provide mid-grade military officers training in Joint and Inter-Service operational and staff functions. The 45-week training course at DSSC allows graduates to successfully perform in any staff or operational appointment appropriate to their grade.
Ministry of Defence Library (MDL):
MDL provides MOD with periodicals and literature on defense planning and policy development and related subjects as well as general subject matters and reference materials.
Institute for Defence Studies and Analysis (IDSA):
IDSA was established in 1965 as an autonomous, non-partisan research institute studying all facets of defense and security issues. It is funded by MOD and serves to promote national and international dialogue on security-related issues through publications of journals, briefs and books. It holds several conferences and workshops each year nationally and internationally.
The Union Budget for 2012-2013 was submitted to Parliament on March 16, 2012. Totaling Rs. 1,93,407.29 crore (US$40.44 billion), the defense budget increased over 17% over the previous year, one of the largest increases in recent years. The standard ratio of the budget for the armed forces is essentially a 5:3:2 split divided between the Army, Air Force, and Navy respectively. The 2012-2013 Budget Estimate numbers provided in MOD’s Annual Report 2011-2012 show the following amounts and total percentage budgeted for the various components of the Defence Ministry:
- Army Rps. 97,302.54 crore (US$20.19 billion ) (49.93%);
- Air Force Rps. 48, 191.16 crore (US$10.08 billion ) (24.93%),
- Navy Rps. 37,314.44 crore (US$7.80 billion ) (19.29%)
- DRDO Rps. 10,635.56 crore (US$2.22 billion) (5.50%)
- DDP Rps. 672.1 crore (US$174 million ) (0.43%)
From the previous year, the Navy share increased by 4%, the AF decreased by 4%. For every service, the largest portion of the budget is allocated toward the personnel expenses—salaries, pensions, and allowances, etc.—that result from maintaining one of the world’s largest standing militaries. About 46% of the 2013 budget’s growth is due to pay and allowance increases for the armed forces. Significant funds are spent importing weapons and equipment; the Republic of India’s poor defense industrial base is a matter of some contention and is far behind the demands of a rising regional power. The Navy, which received a 72% increase in its modernization budget, led modernization efforts in the armed forces; the Air Force’s increase was negligible and the Army actually declined. Importantly, due to poor procurement practices, MOD defense expenditures often fail to meet the amounts allotted in the Union Budget and are returned to the government of India. Complaints and concerns are growing that India’s military capabilities are falling well behind the modernization efforts of surrounding countries, particularly China.
The Big (Birth Year) Payback?
The current Chief of Army Staff, General VK Singh, spent a significant amount of time over the past year embroiled in a controversy over the year of his birth: 1950 or 1951. Two records existed in the Army citing his date of birth—one within the Adjutant General’s office and one with the Military Secretary. At stake was the tenure of his service as the Chief of Army Staff and his mandatory retirement from the Indian Army at age 62. Speculation existed that factions within the Army supporting separate candidates for the next Army Chief of Staff drove the entire controversy. The outcome of Singh’s tenure could have determined the senior-most officer upon his retirement and thus Singh’s successor as Army Chief of Staff. Singh alleged that his enemies within the defense establishment conspired to tarnish his image as payback for his efforts to cleanse the Indian Army of corruption. The matter was first referred to MOD for settlement in May 2011 when Singh turned 61, a year before his expected forced retirement date. The handling of the matter within MOD led Singh to take the issue to the Supreme Court in January 2012. Singh’s own application to the National Defence Academy and the records of the Union Public Service Commission showed his year of birth as 1950. The Supreme Court sided with the government of India on the issue. Singh was forced out. The case diverted significant attention from important service and ministry affairs, highlighted divisions within the defense establishment and the Indian Army, and left both MOD and the Army Chief of Staff diminished in the eyes of the Republic.
The Politics Behind Army Chief’s Age Row (by Seema Mustafa, DNA)
Supreme Court Raps Govt on Army Chief DOB Controversy (by C. Uday Bhaskar, Reuters)
People Inside Army Plotted Against Me: VK Singh (Press Trust India)
Controversy Over Date of Birth Could Have Been Avoided: Army Chief (Indian Express)
Tehelka Current Affairs Interview with Gen VK Singh (by Brijesh Pandey, Tehelka)
Adarsh Cooperative Housing Society Scam
The Adarsh Housing Society was established to provide housing on MOD land in Mumbai's Colaba neighborhood for the widows and dependents of those killed during the Kargil conflict with Pakistan. As construction started in 2003, the planned six-story apartment building grew into a 32-story high rise and the apartments, located on prime real estate, were sold to government bureaucrats, legislators, and senior military officers for a pittance. The Indian media brought increased scrutiny to the scam and forced the government of India to take action. MOD initiated an investigation in October of 2010. Former army chiefs General NC Vij and General Deepak Kapoor, former navy chief Admiral Madhavendra Singh, and former army Vice Chief Lt Gen Shantanu Chowdhary are among those implicated. The official investigation has been marred by severe delays by the Enforcement Directorate and the Central Bureau of Investigation. As of May 2012 the investigations was ongoing and the accused awaited trial.
Criminal Conspiracy in Adarsh Highrise Case: Def Min Probe (by Press Trust India, Deccan Herald)
Adarsh Housing Scam: Bombay HC Slams ED, CBI, Warns of Forming SIT (by Press Trust India, The Times of India)
India to Tear Down Apartments at Heart of Graft Scam (by Henry Foy, Reuters)
Seven Accused in Adarsh Scam Out on Bail (by HT Correspondent, Hindustan Times)
Barak Missile Scandal
In 2001, the Indian news magazine Tehelka conducted a sting operation, Operation West End, to investigate and highlight corruption in defense procurement. In October 2000, the Indian government purchased seven Barak-1 Anti-Missile Defense systems for the Indian Navy costing over $200 million from Israeli Aircraft Industries, Ltd. The purchase was made over the objections of MOD’s Defence Research and Development Organisation and others in the government to include the naval personnel that observed the initial demonstrations in Israel. The sting implicated then-serving Defense Minister George Fernandes and others for receiving kickbacks of Rs 2 crore ($362,000). The case was still under investigation and prosecution is ongoing for some of the accused.
Dubious Deal (by V. Venkatesan, Frontline)
Operation West End: Unfolding Fallout (by Shoma Chaudhury, Tehelka)
Establishment of the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS)
As part of the 2001 GOM reform recommendations, the establishment of a CDS was advocated. The envisioned CDS would head the Integrated Defence Staff and serve as the senior military officer of the armed forces in much the same way as the United States’ chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Integrated Defense Staff was created and significant steps towards establishing joint capabilities have occurred. Currently, the three armed forces service chiefs rotate as chief of the Integrated Defence Staff, a role that is dismissed as “window dressing.”
Anti-CDS Position
Two distinct camps are leading the resistance to establishing a CDS—the civil servants of the Indian government and the Air Force hierarchy. For the Air Force, the question of CDS is a simple matter of maintaining the favorable balance of power that currently exists between the services. As an institution, the Air Force believes that the establishment of CDS will automatically translate into the supremacy of the Indian Army in all substantive military matters. Without guarantees to the contrary, the Air Force is loath to support the concept and frequently voices its doubts to undercut the efforts to create CDS. As for the civilians within the government, their objections are born from the upheavals and military coups of many countries after post-colonial independence. Looking at the frequency of occurrence, the government of India began to fear the possibilities of vesting too much power or influence into a single military officer that might threaten civilian supremacy. The military was gradually pushed out of any meaningful role in national security policy development or decision-making in favor of civilian appointees and civil servants.
Need for Debate on CDS, Says IAF Chief (Indian Express)
Pro-CDS Position
The key argument in favor of establishing and empowering CDS is the belief that India’s complex, and frequently hostile, strategic environment demands a joint, coordinated, and responsive military effort. Without that senior military officer empowered by the government to direct that effort and advise the government on its development and employment, India would continue to struggle through conflicts as it had in the Kargil War. The civilian leaders within the Indian government are frequently without the education and experience in military matters to provide sage advice on military matters. After more than 60 years of independence, and a proven, apolitical culture in the armed forces, the fears of military influence appear overstated. The complex strategic environment demands a greater level of joint planning, preparedness, and prioritization of effort that exists in a parochial service environment absent a CDS.
Do We Need a Chief of Defence Staff? (by Anit Mukherjee and V. P. Malik, Indian Express)
The Man on Horseback (by S.K. Sinha, Asian Age)
Cold Start Doctrine
Since India declared itself a nuclear power in 1998, it has shaped its nuclear strategy around a defensive, “no first strike” response aimed at deterring conventional or nuclear aggression by its neighbors, Pakistan and China. Although even the possession of nuclear weapons and their use in any capacity is hotly debated in India, the defensive nature of the strategy sufficed to assuage opponents. The “Cold Start” doctrine introduced in 2004 changes that significantly. Given the failure of the nuclear deterrent to prevent the Kargil War or Pakistani-supported terror inside India, a new strategy was deemed necessary. The Cold Start doctrine envisions a limited conventional war using quick strikes just across the border into Pakistan under the umbrella of a nuclear strike option as the response to further incursions or aggression. The doctrine is based upon the premise that the Indian Armed Forces would be able to conduct a rapid mobilization and quick retaliatory strike into Pakistan while stopping short of the “red line” triggers that would engender a Pakistani nuclear response.
Anti-Cold Start
Detractors of the Cold Start doctrine are quick to emphasize the high level of risk the new strategy entails. It requires the government of India to accurately gauge the threshold that Pakistan would opt for a nuclear response. The margin for error is impossibly thin and the consequences of miscalculation are grave and existential. For the foreseeable future, the doctrine is largely hollow. The necessary forces organized and postured with the appropriate equipment are yet to materialize. The intelligence capacity to gauge Pakistani reactions and intent is insufficient to the task. Additionally, this Cold Start approach may increase the probability of a conventional war and escalation as the Indian government would view conventional retaliation as a more appealing option than in the past with less risk of escalation and nuclear response.
India’s Cold Start Doctrine and Strategic Stability (by Gurmeet Kanwal the Institute for Defense studies and Analysis)
The ‘Cold Start and Stop’ strategy (by Ali Ahmed, Institute for Defense studies and Analysis)
Pro-Cold Start
Supporters of the Cold Start doctrine point to the impact a more offensive Indian mindset will have on the Pakistani government. As the declared defensive approach failed to mitigate Pakistani aggression in any meaningful way, a new and more effective response must be made. Faced with the prospect of a more bellicose India willing to wield a far bigger stick, the Pakistani government will be less inclined to provoke a response. The specter of nuclear war now casts a far darker shadow upon Pakistan, curtailing the brash behavior it has engaged in with impunity in the past.
Cold Start as Deterrence against Proxy War (by Sushant Sareen, Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis)
A Cold Start for Hot Wars? The Indian Army’s New Limited War Doctrine (by Walter C. Ladwig III, Harvard University)
Defense Management Reforms
The hard fought victory of the Indian Armed Forces in the 1998 conflict with Pakistan in the Kargil Mountains of Kashmir evoked widespread calls for review of the government’s contentious handling of the conflict. The Cabinet Committee on Security, chaired by the Prime Minister, directed a review of the events leading to the conflict. Within five months, the resultant Kargil Review Committee issued a report with 28 recommendations—the most important being the establishment of a Group of Ministers (GOM) to review the entirety of the National Security Structure—the first such review since the birth of the republic. In April 2000, the GOM was established; it consisted of the Home Minister, the Raksha Mantri, the External Affairs Minister, and the Finance Minister. The GOM created four task forces to conduct independent reviews of intelligence, internal security, border management and defense management, respectively. The GOM issued the results of the review in 2001 and recommended a series of changes in joint military doctrine, management and operations, military intelligence, defense acquisitions, development, and financial management. The GOM’s report on defense management contained 75 recommendations to the Cabinet Committee on Security; 95% of the recommendations were approved. Although the majority of the recommended reforms have been enacted, the full implementation of those reforms and, most especially, their inculcation into the culture remains problematic.
In July of 2011, the Indian government established a committee under former defense secretary Naresh Chandra to review the status of defense management reform and provide recommendations for further actions. The Chandra review committee completed their review in May 2012—the issues largely remain the same as do the recommendations.
Reforms in Management of Defence (Ministry of Defence)
Defence Reforms and National Security: Managing Threats and Challenges to India (by Brigadier Gurmeet Kanwal (Ret.), Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies)
Group of ministers' report on "reforming the national security system" (Press Information Bureau)
DNA exclusive: National task force digs up 10-year-old security ideas (by Pradip R. Sagar, DNA)
The Naresh Chandra Task Force on National Security: A Timely Step (by Arvind Gupta, Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis)
Better Integration of Armed Forces Branches
The primary issues of current and continuing concern within MOD remain matters of Jointness—the integration of MOD with the Armed Forces and the completion of the Integrated Defence Staff through the creation of a Chief of Defense Staff. The need for a combined and integrated approach to the preparation and conduct of war fighting was highlighted in the GoM reform recommendations. Implementing the necessary mechanisms and embracing the culture of “jointness” would reduce costly duplications in capabilities, increase effectiveness in mission accomplishment, and reduce fractious inter-service competition. While numerous reform measures have occurred since 2001, to include development of the Integrated Defense Service, establishment of joint doctrine, the conduct of joint exercises and the activation of two joint commands (the Andaman and Nicobar Command and the Strategic Forces Command), a significant gap remains in fully enacting joint integration through the establishment of the Chief of Defence Staff position to head the IDS.
Integrating the Indian Military: Retrospect and Prospect (by Vinod Anand, Journal of Defense Studies)
Indian Army New War Doctrine Analysed (by Dr. Subhash Kapila, South Asia Analysis Group)
Pranab Mukherjee
Pranab Mukherjee served as Minister of Defense from May 2004 to October 2006, when he vacated the post to take over the Ministry of External Affairs.
Mukherjee is a long-time Congress member from West Bengal who was elected in 1969, fast becoming a favorite of former Indian Prime Minister of Indira Gandhi. Mukherjee first became a minister in 1983. He has also held the posts of Minister of Finance (1982-1984) and Leader of the House in the Rajya Sabha.
After Gandhi’s assassination in 1984 at the hands of her bodyguards, Mukherjee made a grave political error. In a country with a dynastic legacy of succession, Mukherjee suggested that he, not her political neophyte son, Rajiv Gandhi, should replace Indira Gandhi as Prime Minister. After the move, he reportedly fell out of favor with the Gandhi family and the Congress party brain trust.
In response, Mukherjee left the Congress party in 1986 to form his own party, Rashtriya Samajwadi Congress. He returned to Congress three years later.
Since returning to Congress in 1989, Mukherjee has become a powerful figure on the Indian political scene. He has served as Deputy Chairperson of the Planning Commission (June 24, 1991-May 15, 1996), Minister of Defense (May 22, 2004-October 24, 2006), Minister of External Affairs (February 10, 1995-May 16, 1996 and October 24, 2004-May 22, 2009) finally, a second stint as Minister of Finance Jan 2009-Jun 2012. As leader of Leader of the House in the Lok Sabha, Mukherjee held the de facto position of Congress party whip.
After resigning his post as Minister of Finance in June 2012, Pranab Mukherjee was elected President of India on July 19, 2012. Although it is a largely ceremonial position, it is perhaps the most prestigious during his long career.
George Fernandes
George Fernandes served as Minister of Defense from 1998-1999, and 1999-2001, and 2001-2004. He served as Defense Minister through the birth of India as a nuclear power and during the Kargil War. His alleged involvement in the Barak Missile Scam in 2001 eventually forced his resignation.
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Ministry of Defence
The Ministry of Defence (MOD) is the primary governmental organization responsible for maintaining India’s territorial integrity. MOD coordinates, implements, and oversees the execution of the government of India’s (GOI) defense policy through the Indian Armed Forces and supporting elements of MOD.
Possessing land borders with seven countries, islands stretching from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the east to the Lakshadweep and Minicoy Islands to the west, and sea borders with the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean, India’s defense requirements are formidable. Tense relationships with fellow nuclear powers China and Pakistan, participation in the rehabilitation of Afghanistan, an active insurgency in the northeast, a proxy war in Kashmir, and helping maintain freedom of navigation in one of the world’s most heavily traveled sea lanes are but a few of the many challenges that face the government, MOD, and Indian Armed Forces.
The Ministry of Defence traces its roots to the Military Department of the East India Company Government of 1776. Over the course of the 18th century, the Military Department grew to manage the administrative and financial support functions of the Indian Army. In the early 20th century, a series of reorganizations resulted in the consolidation of all support functions in the Army Department. In 1938, the Army Department was renamed the Defence Department.
Upon independence from British rule and establishment of the Republic of India in 1950, the Defence Department was transformed into the Ministry of Defence and placed under a Cabinet Minister. Each of the armed services was placed under their own chiefs of staff but remained under the overall control of MOD.
Reorganizations and growth occurred over the next 60 years as the roles and responsibilities of MOD grew. Continuing conflicts with Pakistan and China as well as the challenges brought by independence forced the evolution of the ministry as it learned hard lessons and addressed critical issues. The Defence Research and Development Organisation was established in 1980 to centralize research and development efforts in support of national defense. Organizations to control the integration of imports and production of defense equipment underwent various permutations and now fall under the Department of Defence Production, established in 2004. Reforms also brought about the creation of the Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare in 2004 to centralize governmental efforts to address the wellbeing of Indian veterans.
The Ministry of Defence (MOD) is responsible for administrative and operational control of the armed services of India: the Army, Navy, Air Force and the Coast Guard. The president of India is the supreme commander of the armed forces, but parliamentary bodies play the greatest role in determining India’s defense policies. The Prime Minister’s Union Cabinet develops India’s national security policy and the Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs makes the most important defense policy decisions. MOD provides the framework, resources, direction and coordination for implementation of the government’s defense policy. MOD enacts these policies through the service chiefs and oversees their implementation and execution.
The Defence Minister, the Raksha Mantri, a member of the Union Cabinet, heads MOD. To fulfill its mission, MOD is organized into a finance division and four departments: the Department of Defence, Department of Defence Production, Defence Research and Development Organisation, and Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare. Numerous Inter-Service Organisations (ISOs) dedicated to training, logistics and administrative functions also fall under MOD.
Attached or Autonomous Bodies
The Financial Advisor (Defence Services) heads the Finance Division. It manages expenditures of the defense budget and conducts internal auditing and accounting of these expenditures. The Finance Division ensures the correct execution of approved programs within resource allocations and serves an advisory role on all financial matters to the Raksha Mantri.
The Defence Secretary heads DOD and is responsible for coordination of the four MOD departments and all defense related activities. DOD is also responsible for the defense budget and foreign military cooperation. The headquarters and Integrated Defense Staff falls within DOD.
Integrated Defence Staff (IDS):
IDS was established in October of 2001 as a result of the 2000 GOM review of the national security system. The purpose of IDS is to promote a joint approach to defense issues. The chairman, Chiefs of Staff Committee, heads IDS. The Chiefs of Staff Committee is comprised of the co-equal heads of the Army, Navy and Air Force.
Defence Intelligence Agency (DIA):
DIA was created in March of 2002 as a result of reform measures identified after the Kargil War by a special task force headed by Shri G. C. Saxena. DIA functions under the Chief of the Integrated Defence Staff. DIA consolidates intelligence from the three other armed forces intelligence bodies to improve intelligence sharing and support joint and national decision making. DIA is responsible for providing integrated intelligence to MOD.
India’s armed forces fall under the purview of MOD’s Department of Defense. The armed forces provide for the national defense against external and internal, land, air and sea-based threats. MOD also oversees a number of paramilitary special purpose forces, in conjunction with the Ministry of the Interior.
The Indian Army evolved from the British Indian Army and was formed after establishment of the Republic in 1950. The mission of the Indian Army is to preserve national interests, safeguard sovereignty, territorial integrity, and unity of India against external threats and to assist government agencies with internal threats and other contingencies. The Indian Army currently has 1,100,000 active personnel and 960,000 in reserve units, making it the second largest standing army in the world after the United States.
The Indian Navy was formed from the Royal Indian Navy after establishment of the Republic in 1950. The Navy’s mission is to defeat threats against the territory, people, or maritime interests of India, project influence in India’s maritime area of interest, and in conjunction with the Indian Coast Guard, provide stability, security, and assistance in India’s maritime zones. The Indian Navy has 56,000 active personnel.
The Indian Air Force was established in October of 1932. Its mission is to secure Indian airspace and conduct aerial warfare during conflicts.
The Indian Coast Guard was originally under the auspices of the Indian Navy. It was established as a separate service in August of 1978. The Coast Guard falls under the administrative control of MOD and under the operational control of the Navy during war. Its primary mission is to enforce law in the Indian maritime zones, provide protection and assistance to seafarers, support the Indian Navy as required, and provide assistance with anti-smuggling operations. The Indian Coast Guard contains 5,400 personnel.
Department of Defence Production (DDP):
DDP originated in 1962 and is headed by the Secretary of Defence Production. It merged with the Department of Defence Supplies in 1984. DDP is responsible for defense production, incorporation of imports into defense production, supplies and materiel, and the planning and control of departmental production units of the Ordnance Factory Board and Defence Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs). Although force modernization and domestic production are stated goals of the republic, the majority of defense material remains imported.
Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO):
DRDO was established in 1980 and traces its roots back to the 1958 merger of the Indian Army’s Technical Development Establishments and the Defence Science Organisation’s Directorate of Technical Development and Production. The head of DRDO is the Secretary of Defence Research and Development and serves as the Raksha Mantri’s chief scientific advisor. DRDO advises MOD and the government on the creation of research, design and development plans to meet defense requirements and on the scientific aspects of military equipment and logistics. In fulfillment of its mission, DRDO works closely with a wide range of actors: 15 science and technology agencies, 40 academic institutions, 50 government-owned corporations, and more than 200 businesses. DRDO faces intense criticism for failing to provide the most basic equipment to the Indian Armed Forces or to maintain projects on schedule.
Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare (DEW)
DEW was established in 2004 and headed by the secretary (ESW). The department deals with the wellbeing, resettlement, and pensionary issues of ex-servicemen. It assists in the transition, retraining and follow-on employment, and entrepreneurial efforts of former service members.
Military Engineer Services (MES):
MES provides construction and engineering services to the armed services and departments of MOD. It provides infrastructure services such as water supply and sewage treatment plants as well as construction of dockyards and wharves, airfields, and roads. Civilians and military personnel with a wide range of capabilities- architects, civil, electrical and mechanical engineers, surveyors and contract specialists man MES.
Armed Forces Medical Services (AFMS):
AFMS consists of the Army Medical Corps, Army Dental Corps, and Military Nursing Services. It oversees medical research and provides comprehensive health care to active duty military personnel and their dependents as well as certain medical services to the ex-service members and their families. AFMS operates a wide network of health care facilities throughout the country to include 127 conventional hospitals as well as field hospitals consisting of regimental aid posts and field ambulances.
Directorate General of Defence Estates (DGDE):
DGDE purchases, sells, leases and manages MOD properties. Their holdings include over 1,700,000 acres and 62 cantonments.
Office of the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO):
CAO is responsible for providing civilian manpower and infrastructural support to the armed forces service headquarters and the headquarters offices of the ISOs within the MOD.
Directorate of Public Relations
Directorate of Public Relations provides media support and services to MOD, the armed services, and the ISOs. It facilitates MOD relations with the media and provides radio broadcast and journal publications to relay defense information to the public and armed forces personnel.
Army Purchase Organisation (APO)
APO is responsible for the procurement and provision of dry ration items to the armed forces.
Services Sports Control Board (SSCB):
SSCB coordinates and conducts sports activities within and between the Indian armed services to include service, national, and international competitions.
Armed Forces Films & Photo Division (AFFPD):
AFFPD is responsible for the production, procurement and distribution of training films, production of photographs, and other media in support of MOD. It also maintains a library of films and photographs of the Indian armed forces within the Central Defence Film Library.
School of Foreign Languages (SFL):
SFL provides training in 16 foreign languages to personnel of the Indian armed forces as well as other governmental organizations. It oversees all language training at other defense institutions. Levels of language training available vary from familiarization through mastery.
The History Division maintains the official histories of the Indian Armed Forces. It also serves as the record and reference office for MOD and the armed services’ headquarters.
National Defence College (NDC):
NDC was established in 1960 to educated senior military officers and civilian leaders on national security and strategic studies. Military officers in the rank of brigadier and civil service officers in the rank of director or deputy secretary attend for 47 weeks and gain a broad understanding of the political, economic, military, scientific and organizational matters necessary to conduct national security planning.
College of Defence Management (CDM):
CDM was established in 1970 to provide training in the management concepts and practices applicable to defense operations and training, intelligence, and logistics.
Defence Services Staff College (DSSC):
Located in Tamil Nadu, DSSC was established in 1905 to provide mid-grade military officers training in Joint and Inter-Service operational and staff functions. The 45-week training course at DSSC allows graduates to successfully perform in any staff or operational appointment appropriate to their grade.
Ministry of Defence Library (MDL):
MDL provides MOD with periodicals and literature on defense planning and policy development and related subjects as well as general subject matters and reference materials.
Institute for Defence Studies and Analysis (IDSA):
IDSA was established in 1965 as an autonomous, non-partisan research institute studying all facets of defense and security issues. It is funded by MOD and serves to promote national and international dialogue on security-related issues through publications of journals, briefs and books. It holds several conferences and workshops each year nationally and internationally.
The Union Budget for 2012-2013 was submitted to Parliament on March 16, 2012. Totaling Rs. 1,93,407.29 crore (US$40.44 billion), the defense budget increased over 17% over the previous year, one of the largest increases in recent years. The standard ratio of the budget for the armed forces is essentially a 5:3:2 split divided between the Army, Air Force, and Navy respectively. The 2012-2013 Budget Estimate numbers provided in MOD’s Annual Report 2011-2012 show the following amounts and total percentage budgeted for the various components of the Defence Ministry:
- Army Rps. 97,302.54 crore (US$20.19 billion ) (49.93%);
- Air Force Rps. 48, 191.16 crore (US$10.08 billion ) (24.93%),
- Navy Rps. 37,314.44 crore (US$7.80 billion ) (19.29%)
- DRDO Rps. 10,635.56 crore (US$2.22 billion) (5.50%)
- DDP Rps. 672.1 crore (US$174 million ) (0.43%)
From the previous year, the Navy share increased by 4%, the AF decreased by 4%. For every service, the largest portion of the budget is allocated toward the personnel expenses—salaries, pensions, and allowances, etc.—that result from maintaining one of the world’s largest standing militaries. About 46% of the 2013 budget’s growth is due to pay and allowance increases for the armed forces. Significant funds are spent importing weapons and equipment; the Republic of India’s poor defense industrial base is a matter of some contention and is far behind the demands of a rising regional power. The Navy, which received a 72% increase in its modernization budget, led modernization efforts in the armed forces; the Air Force’s increase was negligible and the Army actually declined. Importantly, due to poor procurement practices, MOD defense expenditures often fail to meet the amounts allotted in the Union Budget and are returned to the government of India. Complaints and concerns are growing that India’s military capabilities are falling well behind the modernization efforts of surrounding countries, particularly China.
The Big (Birth Year) Payback?
The current Chief of Army Staff, General VK Singh, spent a significant amount of time over the past year embroiled in a controversy over the year of his birth: 1950 or 1951. Two records existed in the Army citing his date of birth—one within the Adjutant General’s office and one with the Military Secretary. At stake was the tenure of his service as the Chief of Army Staff and his mandatory retirement from the Indian Army at age 62. Speculation existed that factions within the Army supporting separate candidates for the next Army Chief of Staff drove the entire controversy. The outcome of Singh’s tenure could have determined the senior-most officer upon his retirement and thus Singh’s successor as Army Chief of Staff. Singh alleged that his enemies within the defense establishment conspired to tarnish his image as payback for his efforts to cleanse the Indian Army of corruption. The matter was first referred to MOD for settlement in May 2011 when Singh turned 61, a year before his expected forced retirement date. The handling of the matter within MOD led Singh to take the issue to the Supreme Court in January 2012. Singh’s own application to the National Defence Academy and the records of the Union Public Service Commission showed his year of birth as 1950. The Supreme Court sided with the government of India on the issue. Singh was forced out. The case diverted significant attention from important service and ministry affairs, highlighted divisions within the defense establishment and the Indian Army, and left both MOD and the Army Chief of Staff diminished in the eyes of the Republic.
The Politics Behind Army Chief’s Age Row (by Seema Mustafa, DNA)
Supreme Court Raps Govt on Army Chief DOB Controversy (by C. Uday Bhaskar, Reuters)
People Inside Army Plotted Against Me: VK Singh (Press Trust India)
Controversy Over Date of Birth Could Have Been Avoided: Army Chief (Indian Express)
Tehelka Current Affairs Interview with Gen VK Singh (by Brijesh Pandey, Tehelka)
Adarsh Cooperative Housing Society Scam
The Adarsh Housing Society was established to provide housing on MOD land in Mumbai's Colaba neighborhood for the widows and dependents of those killed during the Kargil conflict with Pakistan. As construction started in 2003, the planned six-story apartment building grew into a 32-story high rise and the apartments, located on prime real estate, were sold to government bureaucrats, legislators, and senior military officers for a pittance. The Indian media brought increased scrutiny to the scam and forced the government of India to take action. MOD initiated an investigation in October of 2010. Former army chiefs General NC Vij and General Deepak Kapoor, former navy chief Admiral Madhavendra Singh, and former army Vice Chief Lt Gen Shantanu Chowdhary are among those implicated. The official investigation has been marred by severe delays by the Enforcement Directorate and the Central Bureau of Investigation. As of May 2012 the investigations was ongoing and the accused awaited trial.
Criminal Conspiracy in Adarsh Highrise Case: Def Min Probe (by Press Trust India, Deccan Herald)
Adarsh Housing Scam: Bombay HC Slams ED, CBI, Warns of Forming SIT (by Press Trust India, The Times of India)
India to Tear Down Apartments at Heart of Graft Scam (by Henry Foy, Reuters)
Seven Accused in Adarsh Scam Out on Bail (by HT Correspondent, Hindustan Times)
Barak Missile Scandal
In 2001, the Indian news magazine Tehelka conducted a sting operation, Operation West End, to investigate and highlight corruption in defense procurement. In October 2000, the Indian government purchased seven Barak-1 Anti-Missile Defense systems for the Indian Navy costing over $200 million from Israeli Aircraft Industries, Ltd. The purchase was made over the objections of MOD’s Defence Research and Development Organisation and others in the government to include the naval personnel that observed the initial demonstrations in Israel. The sting implicated then-serving Defense Minister George Fernandes and others for receiving kickbacks of Rs 2 crore ($362,000). The case was still under investigation and prosecution is ongoing for some of the accused.
Dubious Deal (by V. Venkatesan, Frontline)
Operation West End: Unfolding Fallout (by Shoma Chaudhury, Tehelka)
Establishment of the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS)
As part of the 2001 GOM reform recommendations, the establishment of a CDS was advocated. The envisioned CDS would head the Integrated Defence Staff and serve as the senior military officer of the armed forces in much the same way as the United States’ chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Integrated Defense Staff was created and significant steps towards establishing joint capabilities have occurred. Currently, the three armed forces service chiefs rotate as chief of the Integrated Defence Staff, a role that is dismissed as “window dressing.”
Anti-CDS Position
Two distinct camps are leading the resistance to establishing a CDS—the civil servants of the Indian government and the Air Force hierarchy. For the Air Force, the question of CDS is a simple matter of maintaining the favorable balance of power that currently exists between the services. As an institution, the Air Force believes that the establishment of CDS will automatically translate into the supremacy of the Indian Army in all substantive military matters. Without guarantees to the contrary, the Air Force is loath to support the concept and frequently voices its doubts to undercut the efforts to create CDS. As for the civilians within the government, their objections are born from the upheavals and military coups of many countries after post-colonial independence. Looking at the frequency of occurrence, the government of India began to fear the possibilities of vesting too much power or influence into a single military officer that might threaten civilian supremacy. The military was gradually pushed out of any meaningful role in national security policy development or decision-making in favor of civilian appointees and civil servants.
Need for Debate on CDS, Says IAF Chief (Indian Express)
Pro-CDS Position
The key argument in favor of establishing and empowering CDS is the belief that India’s complex, and frequently hostile, strategic environment demands a joint, coordinated, and responsive military effort. Without that senior military officer empowered by the government to direct that effort and advise the government on its development and employment, India would continue to struggle through conflicts as it had in the Kargil War. The civilian leaders within the Indian government are frequently without the education and experience in military matters to provide sage advice on military matters. After more than 60 years of independence, and a proven, apolitical culture in the armed forces, the fears of military influence appear overstated. The complex strategic environment demands a greater level of joint planning, preparedness, and prioritization of effort that exists in a parochial service environment absent a CDS.
Do We Need a Chief of Defence Staff? (by Anit Mukherjee and V. P. Malik, Indian Express)
The Man on Horseback (by S.K. Sinha, Asian Age)
Cold Start Doctrine
Since India declared itself a nuclear power in 1998, it has shaped its nuclear strategy around a defensive, “no first strike” response aimed at deterring conventional or nuclear aggression by its neighbors, Pakistan and China. Although even the possession of nuclear weapons and their use in any capacity is hotly debated in India, the defensive nature of the strategy sufficed to assuage opponents. The “Cold Start” doctrine introduced in 2004 changes that significantly. Given the failure of the nuclear deterrent to prevent the Kargil War or Pakistani-supported terror inside India, a new strategy was deemed necessary. The Cold Start doctrine envisions a limited conventional war using quick strikes just across the border into Pakistan under the umbrella of a nuclear strike option as the response to further incursions or aggression. The doctrine is based upon the premise that the Indian Armed Forces would be able to conduct a rapid mobilization and quick retaliatory strike into Pakistan while stopping short of the “red line” triggers that would engender a Pakistani nuclear response.
Anti-Cold Start
Detractors of the Cold Start doctrine are quick to emphasize the high level of risk the new strategy entails. It requires the government of India to accurately gauge the threshold that Pakistan would opt for a nuclear response. The margin for error is impossibly thin and the consequences of miscalculation are grave and existential. For the foreseeable future, the doctrine is largely hollow. The necessary forces organized and postured with the appropriate equipment are yet to materialize. The intelligence capacity to gauge Pakistani reactions and intent is insufficient to the task. Additionally, this Cold Start approach may increase the probability of a conventional war and escalation as the Indian government would view conventional retaliation as a more appealing option than in the past with less risk of escalation and nuclear response.
India’s Cold Start Doctrine and Strategic Stability (by Gurmeet Kanwal the Institute for Defense studies and Analysis)
The ‘Cold Start and Stop’ strategy (by Ali Ahmed, Institute for Defense studies and Analysis)
Pro-Cold Start
Supporters of the Cold Start doctrine point to the impact a more offensive Indian mindset will have on the Pakistani government. As the declared defensive approach failed to mitigate Pakistani aggression in any meaningful way, a new and more effective response must be made. Faced with the prospect of a more bellicose India willing to wield a far bigger stick, the Pakistani government will be less inclined to provoke a response. The specter of nuclear war now casts a far darker shadow upon Pakistan, curtailing the brash behavior it has engaged in with impunity in the past.
Cold Start as Deterrence against Proxy War (by Sushant Sareen, Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis)
A Cold Start for Hot Wars? The Indian Army’s New Limited War Doctrine (by Walter C. Ladwig III, Harvard University)
Defense Management Reforms
The hard fought victory of the Indian Armed Forces in the 1998 conflict with Pakistan in the Kargil Mountains of Kashmir evoked widespread calls for review of the government’s contentious handling of the conflict. The Cabinet Committee on Security, chaired by the Prime Minister, directed a review of the events leading to the conflict. Within five months, the resultant Kargil Review Committee issued a report with 28 recommendations—the most important being the establishment of a Group of Ministers (GOM) to review the entirety of the National Security Structure—the first such review since the birth of the republic. In April 2000, the GOM was established; it consisted of the Home Minister, the Raksha Mantri, the External Affairs Minister, and the Finance Minister. The GOM created four task forces to conduct independent reviews of intelligence, internal security, border management and defense management, respectively. The GOM issued the results of the review in 2001 and recommended a series of changes in joint military doctrine, management and operations, military intelligence, defense acquisitions, development, and financial management. The GOM’s report on defense management contained 75 recommendations to the Cabinet Committee on Security; 95% of the recommendations were approved. Although the majority of the recommended reforms have been enacted, the full implementation of those reforms and, most especially, their inculcation into the culture remains problematic.
In July of 2011, the Indian government established a committee under former defense secretary Naresh Chandra to review the status of defense management reform and provide recommendations for further actions. The Chandra review committee completed their review in May 2012—the issues largely remain the same as do the recommendations.
Reforms in Management of Defence (Ministry of Defence)
Defence Reforms and National Security: Managing Threats and Challenges to India (by Brigadier Gurmeet Kanwal (Ret.), Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies)
Group of ministers' report on "reforming the national security system" (Press Information Bureau)
DNA exclusive: National task force digs up 10-year-old security ideas (by Pradip R. Sagar, DNA)
The Naresh Chandra Task Force on National Security: A Timely Step (by Arvind Gupta, Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis)
Better Integration of Armed Forces Branches
The primary issues of current and continuing concern within MOD remain matters of Jointness—the integration of MOD with the Armed Forces and the completion of the Integrated Defence Staff through the creation of a Chief of Defense Staff. The need for a combined and integrated approach to the preparation and conduct of war fighting was highlighted in the GoM reform recommendations. Implementing the necessary mechanisms and embracing the culture of “jointness” would reduce costly duplications in capabilities, increase effectiveness in mission accomplishment, and reduce fractious inter-service competition. While numerous reform measures have occurred since 2001, to include development of the Integrated Defense Service, establishment of joint doctrine, the conduct of joint exercises and the activation of two joint commands (the Andaman and Nicobar Command and the Strategic Forces Command), a significant gap remains in fully enacting joint integration through the establishment of the Chief of Defence Staff position to head the IDS.
Integrating the Indian Military: Retrospect and Prospect (by Vinod Anand, Journal of Defense Studies)
Indian Army New War Doctrine Analysed (by Dr. Subhash Kapila, South Asia Analysis Group)
Pranab Mukherjee
Pranab Mukherjee served as Minister of Defense from May 2004 to October 2006, when he vacated the post to take over the Ministry of External Affairs.
Mukherjee is a long-time Congress member from West Bengal who was elected in 1969, fast becoming a favorite of former Indian Prime Minister of Indira Gandhi. Mukherjee first became a minister in 1983. He has also held the posts of Minister of Finance (1982-1984) and Leader of the House in the Rajya Sabha.
After Gandhi’s assassination in 1984 at the hands of her bodyguards, Mukherjee made a grave political error. In a country with a dynastic legacy of succession, Mukherjee suggested that he, not her political neophyte son, Rajiv Gandhi, should replace Indira Gandhi as Prime Minister. After the move, he reportedly fell out of favor with the Gandhi family and the Congress party brain trust.
In response, Mukherjee left the Congress party in 1986 to form his own party, Rashtriya Samajwadi Congress. He returned to Congress three years later.
Since returning to Congress in 1989, Mukherjee has become a powerful figure on the Indian political scene. He has served as Deputy Chairperson of the Planning Commission (June 24, 1991-May 15, 1996), Minister of Defense (May 22, 2004-October 24, 2006), Minister of External Affairs (February 10, 1995-May 16, 1996 and October 24, 2004-May 22, 2009) finally, a second stint as Minister of Finance Jan 2009-Jun 2012. As leader of Leader of the House in the Lok Sabha, Mukherjee held the de facto position of Congress party whip.
After resigning his post as Minister of Finance in June 2012, Pranab Mukherjee was elected President of India on July 19, 2012. Although it is a largely ceremonial position, it is perhaps the most prestigious during his long career.
George Fernandes
George Fernandes served as Minister of Defense from 1998-1999, and 1999-2001, and 2001-2004. He served as Defense Minister through the birth of India as a nuclear power and during the Kargil War. His alleged involvement in the Barak Missile Scam in 2001 eventually forced his resignation.
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