India’s democracy begins at the bottom. Thus, every village should be an active part of the republic. So every village should be self-sustaining and capable of managing its own affairs. A constitutional institution at the village level is the form of government most accessible to the people. Local knowledge and interest are essential ingredients for democratic decision-making and foster meaningful citizen participation and accountability. At this level of government common citizens can be involved in decision-making concerning their lives, their needs and, above all, the holistic development of their hometown. Strengthening local government ensures a more functional democracy.
Panchayats are an institution of self-government enshrined under Article 243B of the Indian constitution. Panchayats can be constituted at the village, intermediate and district level, subject to the population of the concerned area. The structure of panchayats differs in various states. Panchayat positions are filled by direct election from a particular village or town. Therefore, they are crucial instruments of decentralization and participatory democracy.
Panchayats are structured thusly: At the base is the “Gram Panchayat,” which covers the village or the group of villages. It deals with matters relating to agriculture, small-scale industries, rural housing, roads and electrification, poverty alleviation programs, education, cultural activities, social welfare for women, children and backward classes and the public food distribution system, among other functions.
.
The Mandal is the intermediary level body. It is also referred to as ‘Block’ or ‘Taluka,’ which are older names that are still in use in some states. The intermediary body need not be constituted in the smaller states such as Goa, Delhi and Chhattisgarh.
The apex body is the “Zilla Panchayat,” which covers the entire rural area of the district. The amendment has also made the provision for the mandatory creation of the “Gram Sabha,” which would comprise of all the adult members registered as voters in the Panchayat area. Its role and function are decided by the state legislation.
Self-governing village councils existed from the time of India’s oldest recorded history. They took the form of sabhas or village assemblies. In the course of time, these village bodies took the shape of Panchayats (an assembly of five persons, which draws its name from the Hindi word for five, panch). The Panchayats resolved issues at the village level. Over time, their role and functions have evolved.
In modern times, elected local government bodies were instituted after 1882 by the British Raj. Lord Rippon, the Viceroy of India at that time, created these bodies. They were called the local boards. Due to slow progress, however, the Indian National Congress urged the government to take necessary steps to make all local bodies more effective. Following the Government of India Act of 1919, village panchayats were established in a number of provinces. This trend continued after the Government of India Act of 1935.
During India’s freedom movement, Mahatma Gandhi pushed for the decentralization of economic and political power. He believed that strengthening panchayats was a means of effective decentralization. When the Constitution was prepared, the subject of local government was assigned to the states. This was also covered in the Directive Principles of State Policy, though provisions were primarily advisory in nature and not legally actionable.
Local governments got a boost after the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts. But even before that, efforts to develop local government bodies were in motion. First in the line was the “Community Development Programmme” in 1952, which sought to promote people’s participation in local development through a range of activities. Against this background, a three-tier Panchayati Raj system of local government was recommended for the rural areas. Some states (like Gujarat, Maharashtra) adopted the system of elected local bodies around 1960. But they were largely dependent on state and central governments for financial assistance. In many instances, local bodies were dissolved and people in village had to appeal to state level bodies.
After 1987, the central government initiated a thorough review of local government. In 1989, the P.K. Thungon Committee recommended constitutional recognition for local government bodies. A constitutional amendment was passed to call for periodic elections to local government institutions and an allocation of necessary funds. In1992, the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments were passed by the Parliament (which are also known as Panchayati Raj Institutions or PRIs) and the 74th amendment made the provisions relating to urban local governments (Nagarpalikas). The constitutional amendments assigned as many as 29 subjects to local governments. All these subjects are related to functions linked to local welfare and development needs.
There are various programs under the auspices of the Ministry of Panchyati Raj, Ministry of Human Resource and Development, Ministry of Social Justice& Empowerment and the Ministry of Rural Development to ameliorate social and economic conditions in rural and disadvantaged communities. These programs include the national rural employment guarantee act, which provides 100 days guaranteed work for the unemployed); Bharat Nirman, an infrastructure development program; Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), a program aimed at universalizing primary education; and the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalas (KGBV), which is tasked with establishing 770 boarding schools for girls who belong to traditionally disadvantaged groups like scheduled tribe/ scheduled caste and other backward classes.
Attached Bodies
There are also other bodies that perform various roles within the overall Panchayat. These attached institutions related to Panchayats vary by state and region. These are known as Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs). The Social Justice Committee looks into matters relating to the social, economic and political exploitation of the oppressed and the marginalized classes. The Village Education Committee deals with matters pertaining to education at primary and secondary levels, adult learning and various vocational courses. Standing Agricultural & Production Committee examines such problems as agricultural and bonded labor, the challenges faced by seasonal laborers, the role of middlemen in distribution of agricultural revenue to the peasants and irrigational methods. There are also other autonomous bodies like female-focused groups and associations, self-help groups and youth groups handle matters like the exploitation of women, domestic violence, human trafficking, gender mainstreaming, illegal sex selection, employment opportunities and youth welfare programs. Moreover, the State Election Commission (SEC) and State Finance Commission (SFC) intervene in matters relating to election process and the distribution of funds to these local bodies by the state, respectively. SC/ST cells primarily examined matters relating to India’s under-privileged classes. District Planning Committees (DPCs) are set up in every district to examine matters relating to planning, methods and functioning of the local governments in rural areas. Technical Support Institutions (TSI) are also set up to aid the DPCs and help in policy advocacy.
It is quite surprising to note that only 7 out of 25 states have spent any of the money allotted under the Backward Region Grant Fund. But even those who’ve spent it have done so far too meagerly. The following data from the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, documents the fiscal year that runs from March 2009 to March 2010, the last one for which figures exist. There is a clear pattern of under spending:
State Expenditure Allocation (in RS crores)
Andhra Pradesh 193 ($37.13 Million USD) 335.3 ($64.41 Million USD)
Bihar 63.9 ($12.27 Million USD) 488.7 ($93.87Million USD)
Chhattisgarh 78 ($15 Million USD) 207.6 ($39.94 Million USD)
Nagaland 12.7 ($2.44 Million USD) 37 ($7.12 Million USD)
Orissa 23.9 ($4.6 Million USD) 200.4 ($38.55 Million USD)
Uttar Pradesh 280.6 ($53.98 Million USD) 559.6 ($107.66 Million USD)
West Bengal 10.2 ($1.96 Million USD) 158.7 ($30.53 Million USD)
According to a 2007 article from the Indian magazine “Down To Earth,” the underspending on Backward Region Grant Fund has continued for some time.
Vilasrao Deshmukh’s Dirty Dealings
The January 2010 appointment of Shri Vilasrao Deshmukh, former chief minister of Maharashtra, an alleged player in the Adarsh Housing Society apartment allotment scam, was transferred to the crucial rural development and panchayati raj ministry. Deshmukh appointment in this ministry is quite questionable as in December 2010, Supreme Court had imposed 10 lakhs on Maharashtra government on the basis that Deshmukh as chief minister had influenced the police against registering a FIR against his brother, who was facing money-lending irregularities by farmers in the state’s Buldhana district.
Congress party quickly reshuffled two ministers to fill his portfolios. Jairam Ramesh moved to ministry of rural Development and Kishore Chandra Deo to Ministry of Tribal Youth and Panchayati Raj.
Land Grab. And How to Make Millions (by Ashish Khetan, Tehelka)
BJP Demands Resignation of Vilasrao Deshmukh (Press Trust of India)
Cabinet Reshuffle: Prime Minister Tweaks Portfolios but Sacks No Minister (by Kay Benedict, India Today)
The village panchayat is the form of local government closest to the people. So, its activities should be more focused on delivering essential services to the people. A good way to do this would be through viewing village planning as a unit. This means that through baseline data collection and a thorough analysis of local poverty, village leaders can develop a better sense of the inputs needed through NREGA and other poverty ameliorating programs to improve outcomes. In most Indian villages, there is poor delivery of basic services like electricity, water, sanitation, healthcare and education. The delivery of these services interrelated. For instance, though electric lines exist in many villages, power is limited. When electricity is missing, it can affect the delivery of water. Way to solve this problem would be to rely on innovative methods to use locally available resources. In the state of Rajasthan, for instance, the government produces electricity through cattle driven bullock carts. Solar panels, which can deliver electricity without being connected to the grid, are another solution that can be employed with minimal infrastructural improvements. Building more tube wells can also help villagers access underground water.
Caste and class hierarchy and the attendant discrimination remain consistent obstacles in many villages. The central government has consistently failed to fully address this discrimination and many of the issues that are a direct or indirect result of this inflexible hierarchy. They include caste-based violence towards women, female feticide, decreasing girl child education, rape, molestations, forcible prostitution and land grabs. The government should set up separate law agencies with the help of Social Justice Committees, SC/ST commissions, etc. to quickly ensure justice and compensation for caste and class-based crimes.
Cash-for-votes is also quite prevalent in villages. The sarpanch, who is often wealthier than the rest of the village, buys votes during elections. During his term, he might collude with the Block Development Officer and Junior Engineers to siphon off money allocated by the government for developmental purposes. But these issues are never highlighted as in the center level. Special election commissioners should be appointed by the government to watch for cash-for-votes scams. After elections, there should be more oversight to ensure village leaders are properly implementing government programs like pension funds, the old age scheme fund and the administration of below poverty line cards, which are often misappropriated by the non-poor to receive subsidies to which they are not legally entitled.
Education in villages remains a persistent problem. By 2005, when India’s first deadline for universalization of primary education passed, 40% of school-age children weren’t enrolled in school. The Performance Audit Report of SSA stated that out of 34 Million children, 13.6 million children in the age group 6-14 remained out of school, four years after the implementation of the scheme.
Thus, a few recommendations to improve the situation are:
Integrating line agencies for primary education/elementary education with Panchayati Raj Institutions: The implementation of centrally sponsored schemes (SSA/KGVBS/NPEGEL/Mid-day meal) should be undertaken in partnership with panchayats. Effective strengthening of Panchayat Standing Committees for education along with the Planning Commission should be immediately coordinated as the management still seems to be in the hands of SDMCs and education officers. The planning process should be made inclusive. Education plans should be a sub-plan of the panchayat plan, which should reflect convergence of the resources available for education.
Panchayats are a platform for participatory inclusive planning. The uniform three-tiered structure of panchayats from village to district level should be more people-centered, more democratic and a universal platform should be established for decentralized planning. Proper monitoring, research, documentation and collection of authenticated primary data from various agencies will also help panchayat leaders identify a given community’s needs. Effective model building can also help. High-functioning model panchayats can be an example for low-functioning, inefficient and corrupt panchayats.
- Table of Contents
- Overview
- History
- What it Does
- Where Does the Money Go
- Controversies
- Debate
- Suggested Reforms
- Former Directors
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Ministry of Panchayati Raj
India’s democracy begins at the bottom. Thus, every village should be an active part of the republic. So every village should be self-sustaining and capable of managing its own affairs. A constitutional institution at the village level is the form of government most accessible to the people. Local knowledge and interest are essential ingredients for democratic decision-making and foster meaningful citizen participation and accountability. At this level of government common citizens can be involved in decision-making concerning their lives, their needs and, above all, the holistic development of their hometown. Strengthening local government ensures a more functional democracy.
Panchayats are an institution of self-government enshrined under Article 243B of the Indian constitution. Panchayats can be constituted at the village, intermediate and district level, subject to the population of the concerned area. The structure of panchayats differs in various states. Panchayat positions are filled by direct election from a particular village or town. Therefore, they are crucial instruments of decentralization and participatory democracy.
Panchayats are structured thusly: At the base is the “Gram Panchayat,” which covers the village or the group of villages. It deals with matters relating to agriculture, small-scale industries, rural housing, roads and electrification, poverty alleviation programs, education, cultural activities, social welfare for women, children and backward classes and the public food distribution system, among other functions.
.
The Mandal is the intermediary level body. It is also referred to as ‘Block’ or ‘Taluka,’ which are older names that are still in use in some states. The intermediary body need not be constituted in the smaller states such as Goa, Delhi and Chhattisgarh.
The apex body is the “Zilla Panchayat,” which covers the entire rural area of the district. The amendment has also made the provision for the mandatory creation of the “Gram Sabha,” which would comprise of all the adult members registered as voters in the Panchayat area. Its role and function are decided by the state legislation.
Self-governing village councils existed from the time of India’s oldest recorded history. They took the form of sabhas or village assemblies. In the course of time, these village bodies took the shape of Panchayats (an assembly of five persons, which draws its name from the Hindi word for five, panch). The Panchayats resolved issues at the village level. Over time, their role and functions have evolved.
In modern times, elected local government bodies were instituted after 1882 by the British Raj. Lord Rippon, the Viceroy of India at that time, created these bodies. They were called the local boards. Due to slow progress, however, the Indian National Congress urged the government to take necessary steps to make all local bodies more effective. Following the Government of India Act of 1919, village panchayats were established in a number of provinces. This trend continued after the Government of India Act of 1935.
During India’s freedom movement, Mahatma Gandhi pushed for the decentralization of economic and political power. He believed that strengthening panchayats was a means of effective decentralization. When the Constitution was prepared, the subject of local government was assigned to the states. This was also covered in the Directive Principles of State Policy, though provisions were primarily advisory in nature and not legally actionable.
Local governments got a boost after the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts. But even before that, efforts to develop local government bodies were in motion. First in the line was the “Community Development Programmme” in 1952, which sought to promote people’s participation in local development through a range of activities. Against this background, a three-tier Panchayati Raj system of local government was recommended for the rural areas. Some states (like Gujarat, Maharashtra) adopted the system of elected local bodies around 1960. But they were largely dependent on state and central governments for financial assistance. In many instances, local bodies were dissolved and people in village had to appeal to state level bodies.
After 1987, the central government initiated a thorough review of local government. In 1989, the P.K. Thungon Committee recommended constitutional recognition for local government bodies. A constitutional amendment was passed to call for periodic elections to local government institutions and an allocation of necessary funds. In1992, the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments were passed by the Parliament (which are also known as Panchayati Raj Institutions or PRIs) and the 74th amendment made the provisions relating to urban local governments (Nagarpalikas). The constitutional amendments assigned as many as 29 subjects to local governments. All these subjects are related to functions linked to local welfare and development needs.
There are various programs under the auspices of the Ministry of Panchyati Raj, Ministry of Human Resource and Development, Ministry of Social Justice& Empowerment and the Ministry of Rural Development to ameliorate social and economic conditions in rural and disadvantaged communities. These programs include the national rural employment guarantee act, which provides 100 days guaranteed work for the unemployed); Bharat Nirman, an infrastructure development program; Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), a program aimed at universalizing primary education; and the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalas (KGBV), which is tasked with establishing 770 boarding schools for girls who belong to traditionally disadvantaged groups like scheduled tribe/ scheduled caste and other backward classes.
Attached Bodies
There are also other bodies that perform various roles within the overall Panchayat. These attached institutions related to Panchayats vary by state and region. These are known as Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs). The Social Justice Committee looks into matters relating to the social, economic and political exploitation of the oppressed and the marginalized classes. The Village Education Committee deals with matters pertaining to education at primary and secondary levels, adult learning and various vocational courses. Standing Agricultural & Production Committee examines such problems as agricultural and bonded labor, the challenges faced by seasonal laborers, the role of middlemen in distribution of agricultural revenue to the peasants and irrigational methods. There are also other autonomous bodies like female-focused groups and associations, self-help groups and youth groups handle matters like the exploitation of women, domestic violence, human trafficking, gender mainstreaming, illegal sex selection, employment opportunities and youth welfare programs. Moreover, the State Election Commission (SEC) and State Finance Commission (SFC) intervene in matters relating to election process and the distribution of funds to these local bodies by the state, respectively. SC/ST cells primarily examined matters relating to India’s under-privileged classes. District Planning Committees (DPCs) are set up in every district to examine matters relating to planning, methods and functioning of the local governments in rural areas. Technical Support Institutions (TSI) are also set up to aid the DPCs and help in policy advocacy.
It is quite surprising to note that only 7 out of 25 states have spent any of the money allotted under the Backward Region Grant Fund. But even those who’ve spent it have done so far too meagerly. The following data from the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, documents the fiscal year that runs from March 2009 to March 2010, the last one for which figures exist. There is a clear pattern of under spending:
State Expenditure Allocation (in RS crores)
Andhra Pradesh 193 ($37.13 Million USD) 335.3 ($64.41 Million USD)
Bihar 63.9 ($12.27 Million USD) 488.7 ($93.87Million USD)
Chhattisgarh 78 ($15 Million USD) 207.6 ($39.94 Million USD)
Nagaland 12.7 ($2.44 Million USD) 37 ($7.12 Million USD)
Orissa 23.9 ($4.6 Million USD) 200.4 ($38.55 Million USD)
Uttar Pradesh 280.6 ($53.98 Million USD) 559.6 ($107.66 Million USD)
West Bengal 10.2 ($1.96 Million USD) 158.7 ($30.53 Million USD)
According to a 2007 article from the Indian magazine “Down To Earth,” the underspending on Backward Region Grant Fund has continued for some time.
Vilasrao Deshmukh’s Dirty Dealings
The January 2010 appointment of Shri Vilasrao Deshmukh, former chief minister of Maharashtra, an alleged player in the Adarsh Housing Society apartment allotment scam, was transferred to the crucial rural development and panchayati raj ministry. Deshmukh appointment in this ministry is quite questionable as in December 2010, Supreme Court had imposed 10 lakhs on Maharashtra government on the basis that Deshmukh as chief minister had influenced the police against registering a FIR against his brother, who was facing money-lending irregularities by farmers in the state’s Buldhana district.
Congress party quickly reshuffled two ministers to fill his portfolios. Jairam Ramesh moved to ministry of rural Development and Kishore Chandra Deo to Ministry of Tribal Youth and Panchayati Raj.
Land Grab. And How to Make Millions (by Ashish Khetan, Tehelka)
BJP Demands Resignation of Vilasrao Deshmukh (Press Trust of India)
Cabinet Reshuffle: Prime Minister Tweaks Portfolios but Sacks No Minister (by Kay Benedict, India Today)
The village panchayat is the form of local government closest to the people. So, its activities should be more focused on delivering essential services to the people. A good way to do this would be through viewing village planning as a unit. This means that through baseline data collection and a thorough analysis of local poverty, village leaders can develop a better sense of the inputs needed through NREGA and other poverty ameliorating programs to improve outcomes. In most Indian villages, there is poor delivery of basic services like electricity, water, sanitation, healthcare and education. The delivery of these services interrelated. For instance, though electric lines exist in many villages, power is limited. When electricity is missing, it can affect the delivery of water. Way to solve this problem would be to rely on innovative methods to use locally available resources. In the state of Rajasthan, for instance, the government produces electricity through cattle driven bullock carts. Solar panels, which can deliver electricity without being connected to the grid, are another solution that can be employed with minimal infrastructural improvements. Building more tube wells can also help villagers access underground water.
Caste and class hierarchy and the attendant discrimination remain consistent obstacles in many villages. The central government has consistently failed to fully address this discrimination and many of the issues that are a direct or indirect result of this inflexible hierarchy. They include caste-based violence towards women, female feticide, decreasing girl child education, rape, molestations, forcible prostitution and land grabs. The government should set up separate law agencies with the help of Social Justice Committees, SC/ST commissions, etc. to quickly ensure justice and compensation for caste and class-based crimes.
Cash-for-votes is also quite prevalent in villages. The sarpanch, who is often wealthier than the rest of the village, buys votes during elections. During his term, he might collude with the Block Development Officer and Junior Engineers to siphon off money allocated by the government for developmental purposes. But these issues are never highlighted as in the center level. Special election commissioners should be appointed by the government to watch for cash-for-votes scams. After elections, there should be more oversight to ensure village leaders are properly implementing government programs like pension funds, the old age scheme fund and the administration of below poverty line cards, which are often misappropriated by the non-poor to receive subsidies to which they are not legally entitled.
Education in villages remains a persistent problem. By 2005, when India’s first deadline for universalization of primary education passed, 40% of school-age children weren’t enrolled in school. The Performance Audit Report of SSA stated that out of 34 Million children, 13.6 million children in the age group 6-14 remained out of school, four years after the implementation of the scheme.
Thus, a few recommendations to improve the situation are:
Integrating line agencies for primary education/elementary education with Panchayati Raj Institutions: The implementation of centrally sponsored schemes (SSA/KGVBS/NPEGEL/Mid-day meal) should be undertaken in partnership with panchayats. Effective strengthening of Panchayat Standing Committees for education along with the Planning Commission should be immediately coordinated as the management still seems to be in the hands of SDMCs and education officers. The planning process should be made inclusive. Education plans should be a sub-plan of the panchayat plan, which should reflect convergence of the resources available for education.
Panchayats are a platform for participatory inclusive planning. The uniform three-tiered structure of panchayats from village to district level should be more people-centered, more democratic and a universal platform should be established for decentralized planning. Proper monitoring, research, documentation and collection of authenticated primary data from various agencies will also help panchayat leaders identify a given community’s needs. Effective model building can also help. High-functioning model panchayats can be an example for low-functioning, inefficient and corrupt panchayats.
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