The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO/“the agency”) is India’s official space agency. Established in 1969, it ranks among the world’s top ten space agencies. The agency functions under the administrative control of the Department of Space (DoS), an autonomous department directed by the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO). Despite the administrative divide, the DoS and ISRO are essentially interchangeable.

The success of Chandrayaan-1, India’s first lunar mission, which safely landed the Moon Impact Probe (MIP) in 2008, makes India one of less than ten countries with a moon landing and one of only four countries – the U.S., the former Soviet Union, and Japan – with national flags on the moon. The mission success is a key component of New Delhi’s growing desire to market brand India and to compete with China as an emerging superpower. In a government riddled with corruption, bureaucratic inefficiency, and governmental lethargy, the agency stands as one of the few competent institutions. With plans for a trip to Mars’ orbit and for manned spaceflights, ISRO’s remains a crucial part of India’s projection of soft power.

ISRO’s story begins in 1962 with the founding of the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR). INCOSPAR, under Dr. Vikram Sarabhai's leadership, considered the father of India’s space program, created a separate body for space sciences. On November 21, 1963, India launched a sounding rocket from TERLS, it’s first space mission. Following this success, the space program gradually expanded, establishing the Space Science and Technology Center at Thumba in 1965 and the Satellite Telecommunication Earth Station at Ahmadabad in 1967. The ISRO was established in 1969 under the purview of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE). In 1972, the DoS and the Indian Space Commission were born, and the DoS gained control of the ISRO.

The ISRO’s first mission came in 1975 when it developed Aryabhatta, the first Indian space satellite. Since India lacked launch capability, it took off from the Soviet Union. In 1979, ISRO developed the Bhaskara-I, India’s first earth observations satellite. Wanting independence from the Soviet Union, ISRO began developing its own Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV). The efforts paid off in 1980 when Rohini-I was successfully launched into space from an indigenously created SLV. The Rohini-3 satellite launched in April 1983 increased television network coverage from 20% to 70% (and currently covers around 90% of the country). That same year, the government commissioned the Indian National Satellite System (INSAT), a series of satellites used for telecommunications, navigation, meteorology, broadcasting, search and rescue, and disaster communication. Out of 21 INSAT launches, 11 satellites are currently maintained. In 1984 Rakesh Sharma travelled in space, the first and only Indian to do so.  

In the late 1980’s and the early part of 1990’s ISRO successfully developed two enhanced SLV’s – the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) and the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV). One of the more recent SLV projects is the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, Mark I & Mark II (GSLV- MkI & GSLV- MkII). Encouraged by the success of Bhaskara-I and realizing the potential applications of a comprehensive earth observation system in agriculture, natural resources development, fisheries, and environmental management, the SRO developed the second major satellite series, the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites, in the late 1980's. 11 satellites are currently operational as part of the IRS satellite system.

ISRO forms only the implementation arm of the Indian space program. The high level Space Commission composed of the ISRO head, eminent scientists, and politicians’ sets space policy. Specific portions of the ISRO’s work are carried out through the many of its attached bodies. Broadly, ISRO’s work is divided into following categories: launch vehicle technology, satellite systems (including INSAT and IRS), space technology research (includes many future program such as the Mars rover and human spaceflight), and space science research.

During the Twelfth Fifth Year Plan (2012-2017), ISRO plans to bolster its INSAT and GSAT services, establish the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System, continue earth observation and remote sensing program through the IRS, further strengthening PSLV and GSLV capabilities, develop the GSLV-MkIII, pursue research and development efforts to create an indigenous cryogenic system, expand India’s role in space exploration through the Mars mission and human spaceflight program, and boost space’s societal applications in fields such as education, disaster management, and medicine.

India’s launch vehicle technology currently manifests itself in the PSLV and the GSLV. PSLV, termed the “workhorse launch vehicle of ISRO” had three successful launches in 2011: PSLV –C16, C17, and C18. Payload consisted of meteorological, communications, and science satellites. Plans are underway to launch the PSLV C-19 in first quarter of 2012-13. As a result of GSLV’s 2010 failures, GSLV did not see much action in 2011. Rather Failure Analysis Committees reviewed aspects of GSLV and proposed design modifications. GSLV D-5, the first GSLV launch in almost two years is scheduled for October 2012. Additionally considerable work has been completed toward manufacturing the GSLV Mark III. The Mark III is designed to be a “heavy launch vehicle” to launch the 4.5 ton satellites of INSAT-4.

ISRO, alongside the INSAT Coordination Committee, manages the INSAT system, Asia-Pacific’s largest domestic communications satellite system. It consists of ten operation satellites: INSAT-2E, INSAT-3A, INSAT-3C, INSAT-3E, KALPANA-1 (named after deceased Indian-American astronaut Kalpana Chawla), INSAT-4A, INSAT-4B, INSAT-4CR, GSAT-8, and GSAT-12. The INSAT satellites are used for telecommunications, navigation, meteorology, broadcasting, search and rescue, and disaster communication. Plans are in place to launch the GSAT-7, GSAT-10, GSAT-14, and INSAT-3D. The IRS satellite system, India’s other major satellite system, serves as India’s earth observation system. The 11 satellites - TES, RESOURCESAT-1, CARTOSAT-1, CARTOSAT-2, CARTOSAT-2A, CARTOSAT-2B, IMS-1, RISAT-2, OCEANSAT-2, RESOURCESAT-2 and MEGHA-TROPIQUES – are ideal for natural resources management as well scientific studies.

DoS’ 2012-2013 Outcome Budget details ISRO’s ambitious program in line with the India’s Space Vision 2025. Space Vision 2025 outlines broad aspirations for the Indian space program. These aspirations include satellite communication and navigation systems for rural areas, security, and mobile services; enhanced earth observation capacity; research focused space science missions; planetary exploration; development of a heavy lift launcher; development of reusable launch vehicles; and, perhaps the most audacious and exciting, human spaceflight. The agency’s current projects and programs include:

• Continuation of the GSLV and PSLV program through planned satellite launches.
• Furthering the GSLV program through the use of indigenous cryogenic engine & stage. The next developmental flight is scheduled for 2012-2013.
• Further research and development for the GSLV Mk-III envisaged launching 4-ton INSAT satellites. An experimental flight is scheduled for 2012-2013.
• Research and development into the Cryogenic Upper Stage Project to create an indigenous restart able cryogenic stage.
• Development and launch OCEANSTAT-2, RESOURCESTAT-3, and CARTOSTAT-3 as part of a plan to bolster the IRS system.
• Continue Chandrayaan-1 through Chandrayaan-2. Chandrayaan-2 is planned for 2014 as a joint mission between ISRO and the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA). The objective is to conduct on-site chemical analysis.
• Develop Astrosat 1&2 for a planned 2014 launch. Astrosat 1&2 is designed to be an astronomical observatory for cosmic research.
• Continuation of the INSAT and GSAT system and its services.
• Carry out the Space Capsule Recovery Experiments (SRE- I & II). SRE’s goal is to develop the capability to recover an orbiting capsule and to demonstrate successful conduct of micro-gravity experiments while in orbit.
• Establish the Indian Satellite Navigation System for civilian GPS use as well as geospatial information for military and intelligence communities.
• Continued research and development into the human spaceflight program by developing an autonomous manned capsule and its experimental testing as well as the development of a crew escape system.
• Develop National Natural Resource Management System (NNRMS) applications through remote sensing. NNRMS is an inter-agency system established to better manage natural resources.
• Advance the 2013 Mars Orbiter Mission by designing a spacecraft capable of reaching and orbiting Mars to study the Martian surface and atmosphere.

Attached or Autonomous Bodies

Vikram Sarabhai Space Center

Established in 1963 as the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS), VSSC leads research and development efforts of India’s satellite launch vehicle technologies. The VSSC also researches aeronautics, avionics, engineering, chemicals, propulsion, and other related disciplines. TERLS was renamed VSSC in 1971 to honor the father of India’s space program, Dr. Vikram Sarabhai. Major ISRO programs at VSSC include the PSLV, GSLV, and the Rohini sounding rockets.

Liquid Propulsion Systems Center

Headquartered in Kerala with additional offices in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, LPSC researches, develops, tests, and manages propulsion systems, control systems, launch vehicle and satellite components, and other associated technology and programs.  

Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR (Sriharikota Range)

With two launch pads, SDSC is the primary launch center for all ISRO and allied missions. In addition to serving as the launch station, SDSC-SHAR also develops solid propellant boosters, maintains the necessary testing infrastructure, and provides facilities and expertise for the assembly of launch vehicles and satellites. Known as SHAR, the center was renamed SDSC in 2002 after Satish Sharma, a former ISRO chairman.

ISRO Satellite Center

ISAC designs and develops scientific, communications, and remote sensing satellite systems technology for ISRO missions. Located in Bangalore, it is divided into six core functional areas – mechanical systems; digital and communications systems; integration and checkout systems; power systems and avionics production area; control and mission systems; and a reliability and components unit for program planning and evaluation. To date, ISAC has managed over 50 projects, including currently functional INSAT and IRS satellites.

Space Applications Center

SAC is tasked with researching and designing instrumentation useable in ISRO missions that have practical applications in everyday life. These applications include communications, broadcasting, navigation, disaster monitoring, and natural resources surveys, among others. SAC has developed payloads, antennas, and ground systems as part of its satellite communications technology applications and electro-optical and microwave sensor for remote sensing purposes. It is located in Ahmadabad and is considered to be one of the major ISRO centers.

National Remote Sensing Center

NRSC was established as the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), an autonomous body under DoS, in 1974. In 2008, it became an attached ISRO body. NRSC, as the name suggests, is responsible for India’s growing remote sensing activities, carried out primarily by the IRS satellites. Through its eight functional areas – satellite data acquisition and data processing; aerial services and digital mapping; earth and climatic science; remote sensing applications; system reliability and quality assurance; program planning and evaluation; regional centers; and administration – the center collects and distributes data, carries out aerial surveys, assists disaster mitigation efforts, and provides needed services to other agencies.

Indian Institute of Remote Sensing

Set up in 1966 as the Photo-Interpretation Institute, IIRS is an attached ISRO education and training body providing graduate degrees in remote sensing and associated fields as well as certificate programs. The Institute also undertakes broad related research. In 1976, IIRS was merged with NRSA. IIRS followed NRSC to ISRO, and in 2011 was made a separate body under ISRO.

ISRO Inertial Systems Unit

A part of ISRO’s Thiruvananthapuram establishment, IISU is a research and development center specializing in inertial sensors and systems for launch vehicles and spacecrafts.

Development and Educational Communication Unit

Located in Ahmadabad, DECU undertakes application activities like tele-education, telemedicine, disaster management support, village resources centers, etc.

Master Control Facility

Located in Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh, MCF oversees and controls all geostationary satellites. At present, MCF operates ten on-orbit satellites: INSAT 2E, 3A, 3C, 4A, 4B, 4CR, Kalpana-1, GSAT-8, and GSAT-12. MCF is also tasked with “special operations” management such as eclipse disturbances and reaction and recovery in emergency situations.

ISRO Telemetry, Tracking, and Command Network

ISTRAC supports ISRO by providing telemetry, tracking, command, and mission control support for satellite launches and other space faring missions. Along with its headquarters in Bangalore, ISTRAC maintain tracking centers at Lucknow, SDSC-SHAR, Thiruvananthapuram, Port Blair Island, Brunei, Indonesia, and Mauritius. ISTRAC is further designated to develop radar systems for launch vehicle tracking, establish the ground sector of the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System, provide search and rescue services, and perform public services such as telemedicine and tele-education.

Laboratory for Electro-Optic Systems

Operating in Bangalore, LEOS is engaged in research and development of optical sensors, camera optics, and other electronic visual aid mechanisms required for ISRO satellites and launch vehicles. Sensors include star trackers as well as sun, temperature, and meteorological sensors.

ISRO receives its funding through the DoS. The department apportions its Rs. 6,715 crore ($1.2 billion USD) budget to five main areas: Space Technology – Rs. 4068.11 crore ($756.2 million USD); Space Application – Rs. 758.59 crore ($141 million USD); Satellite Systems – Rs. 1220.87 crore ($227 million USD); Space Sciences – Rs. 471.75 crore ($87.7 million USD); and Direction & Administration and Other Programs – Rs. 195.68 crore ($36.37 million USD).

More than half of the department’s funding goes to satellite technology, launch vehicles, launch support and other facilities. Out of the Rs. 4068.11 crore ($756.2 million USD) earmarked for that purpose, Rs. 2307.19 crore ($428.85 million USD) is for Launch Vehicle Technology, Rs. 1197.06 ($222.5 million USD) for Satellite Technology, and Rs. 563.86 ($104.81 million USD) for Launch Support, Tracking Network, and Range Facility.

The currently operational INSAT satellite also receives significant funding. A total of Rs. 1220.87 crore ($227 million USD) goes to the Master Control Facility, INSAT-3 and INSAT-4 satellites, and the required GSAT-7 launch services.

Three other programs require special attention. The first is the Chandrayaan-2 Project. Following up its 2008 success, India, in partnership with Russia, plans to return to the moon in 2014. For this purpose, the 2012-2013 budget includes Rs. 82.50 crore ($15.34 million USD). The second program is the proposed Mars mission in November 2013. Rs. 125 crore ($23.23 million USD) is already committed to the Mars Orbiter Mission. The third is the human spaceflight program. As of July 2012, ISRO submitted a Rs. 12,500 crore (~$2.4 billion USD) proposal for a comprehensive human spaceflight program. So far the government has already allocated Rs. 200 crore (~$37.5 million USD). DoS’ 2012-2013 Outcome Budget indicates that ISRO plans on spending Rs. 60.46 crore (~$11.3 million USD) toward that objective.

Department of Space 2012-2013 Budget (Union Budget 2012-2013) (pdf)

Department of Space Outcome Budget 2012-2013 (ISRO) (pdf)

Department of Space 2012-2013 Budget At a Glance (ISRO) (pdf)

Antrix-Devas Deal

In January 2005, Antrix Corporation signed an agreement with Devas Multimedia Limited over allocation of “70 MHz S-Band spectrum to Devas by leasing out transponders of two satellites to be built mainly for Devas.” 

S-band is a unique in that it can be used for “both broadcasting and mobile satellite services.” The deal was ultimately upended in 2011 when it was revealed that Devas had received the spectrum at an extremely low price, to the detriment of the Indian treasury. Reports stated that although the spectrum’s value was around Rs. 2 lakh crore ($ 37 billion USD), ISRO sold it to Devas for only Rs. 1000 crore ($184 million USD). Two government panels investigate the matter. While one panel found no price-fixing, the second panel concluded otherwise. The Pratyush Sinha-led panel found “not only serious administrative and procedural lapses but also suggestion of collusive behavior on the part of certain individuals." It further stated that “It is very clear that there have been serious lapses of judgment on the part of a number of officials…. their actions verged on the point of serious violation of norms and breach of public trust.” As a result, G. Madhavan Nair, who headed the ISRO during the deal and three other prominent scientists were barred from government employment.

In May 2012, the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) issued a scathing report that blamed DoS for the debacle. It found the deal was a “classic case of public investment for private profit.” The department “concealed facts from the Union Cabinet … violated numerous rules, policies and procedures.  Public interest and those of the Government were sacrificed to favour a private consultancy firm...” The report further alleged that deal was structured in a way to maximize Devas’ benefits at the expense of the public. The report also singled out Nair, finding he concealed critical facts about the deal in a note he sent to the cabinet.

Since India’s space program is largely considered one of India’s few honest institutions, the revelations were shocking. It didn’t help matters that the S-band spectrum scandal followed the 3G-spectrum scandal, where the treasury lost billion USDs. Nair’s blacklisting by the Congress-led administration was strongly criticized by BJP and the issue became another political football. Although a war of words continues between Nair and the Indian government, the scandal has done little to change public opinion of the Indian space program or affect the day-to-day operations of ISRO.

Antrix-Devas Deal: CAG Critical of Madhavan Nair (by Urmi Goswami, Economic Times)

The Fall of Madhavan Nair: Decoding the ‘Scandal’ (by G Pramod Kumar, First Post India)

Antrix-Devas Deal: CAG Flays Department of Space (IBN Live)

CAG Confirms Devas Multimedia Got Pie in S-band Deal on a Platter, Raps Department of Space (by Dinesh Sharma, India Today)

Report No. -4 of 2012-13 for Period Ended March 2011 - Union Government (Department of Space) Hybrid Satellite Digital Multimedia Broadcasting Service Agreement with Devas (Comptroller and Auditor General of India)

Norms and Procedures Flouted in Antrix-Devas Deal (by N. Gopal Raj, The Hindu)

Antrix-Devas Deal: Nair Fires Fresh Salvo at Radhakrishnan (Jargan Post)

Management Level Changes

In the aftermath of the Antrix-Devas Deal, the High Powered Committee on Various Aspects of the Agreement Between Antrix and Devas Multimedia Pvt. Ltd. chaired by B.K. Chaturvedi and Professor Roddam Narasimha issued management level recommendations for ISRO. These were: 

• A regular review of ISRO policies and culture every three years to strengthen the institution and deter lethargy.
• Establishment of a Coordination Management Committee between ISRO and Antrix to ensure coordination between the two entities.
• Strengthening the costing system of ISRO to achieve realistic cost estimates.
• ISRO headquarters should provide “inputs” to DoS Secretariat for overall program management and planning.

Report of the High Powered Committee on Various Aspects of the Agreement Between Antrix and Devas Multimedia Pvt. Ltd. (pdf)

Mars Orbiter Mission

Formally announced by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on August 15, 2012, the mission to Mars proposal has generated enthusiasm as well as controversy. The Indian Cabinet has approved a grant of Rs. 450 crore ($83.7 million USD) for the program. Critics of the program argue that India has misplaced priorities. They believe spending money on moon missions is foolish when India hasn’t tackled developmental challenges like reducing crippling poverty levels, increasing access to education, and mitigating countless other problems. Proponents of the program argue that the amount allocated is not significant and the mission has tangible as well as intangible benefits for India and Indians.

The Mission is not Justified

Several social activists contend primarily that the Indian government has misplaced priorities. By attempting to “rub shoulders” with other world powers, these critics say the government sends the wrong message. Most question the actual value of sending a satellite to orbit Mars, which won’t benefit destitute Indians or help ameliorate other social problems. Harsh Mander, a social activist, believes the money should be spent reducing poverty, disease and malnutrition. Journalist Padma Rao calls it a matter of priority. While funds have been deducted for education and poverty reform, it has not been prioritized. Further, the announcement came in the wake of India’s worst power grid failure, leading many to wonder if the money wouldn’t be better spent on basic infrastructure rather than advanced science and technology.

India Seeing Red over Costly Mission to Mars (by Krista Mahr, Time World)

India's Mars Mission Misplaced Priorities or Legitimate Aspirations (NDTV)

The Mission is Justified

Apart from the general population who support the Mars mission, the loudest public supporters belong to the space community. Supporters point out two things: firstly, Rs. 450 crore ($83.7 million USD) is not a significant amount for a country like India. This amount will not eradicate or even substantially impact serious social problems. Secondly, the mission has no negative effects and does have benefits. In addition to acquiring technological knowledge and mastery over what is a very difficult mission, the very idea of sending a probe to another planet can inspire coming generations to pursue science education. Dr. PS Goel, the former head of ISRO, believes that aspirations are needed for growth as a country and that the Mars mission will ultimately provide that aspiration. Dr. TK Alex, Former Director of the ISRO Satellite Center seconds that view.

Breaking Views: India's Mars Mission Justified (Reuters Video)

Manmohan Formally Announces India's Mars Mission (The Hindu)

India to Launch Mission to Mars in 2013 (by Tariq Malik, Space.com)

G. Madhavan Nair

G. Madhavan Nair served as the former Secretary of the Department of Space and Chairman of the Space Commission and ISRO from September 2003- October 2009. During this period he also served as the Chairman of the Governing Body of the National Remote Sensing Agency and Chairman of the Antrix Corporation. Born in 1943, Nair holds a B.Sc. in Engineering with a specialization in Electrical and Communication from Kerala University. He has received numerous honorable degrees from technical institutions across the country. Before his appointment as Chairman, Nair had spent almost four decades in the Indian space program. His leadership positions included Director of the Liquid Propulsion Systems Center and Director of the Vikram Sarabhai Space Center. He is referred to as the “architect of India’s space program” and played a pivotal role in the lunar mission. In recognition of his services, he received the Padma Vishubhan, India’s second highest civilian honor.

Considered to be a national treasure, Nair was implicated in the Antrix-Devas deal and was subsequently blacklisted by the Indian government. As a result, Nair cannot seek employment with the central government.